Kōjō

Research

Every ingredient in Rōnin is included because peer-reviewed evidence supports it at the dose used. This page compiles the primary literature behind each one — 119 citations across 50 ingredients, organised by body system. All citations link directly to PubMed (National Library of Medicine). Nothing is hidden, reformulated, or proprietary.

See the full formula with doses on The Formula, or explore each ingredient individually below.

Performance & Recovery

Creatine Monohydrate 5,000mg

  1. Rawson ES, Volek JS. (2003). J Strength Cond Res. 17(4):822–31. Effects of creatine supplementation and resistance training on muscle strength and weightlifting performance.
  2. Branch JD. (2003). Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 13(2):198–226. Effect of creatine supplementation on body composition and performance: a meta-analysis.
  3. Rae C, et al. (2003). Proc Biol Sci. 270(1529):2147–50. Oral creatine monohydrate supplementation improves brain performance: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial.
  4. Kreider RB, et al. (2017). J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 14:18. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine.
  5. Forbes SC, et al. (2022). Nutrients. 14(5):921. Effects of creatine supplementation on brain function and health.

Taurine 2,000mg

  1. Singh P, et al. (2023). Science. 380(6649):eabn9257. Taurine deficiency as a driver of aging.
  2. Ripps H, Shen W. (2012). Mol Vis. 18:2673–86. Review: taurine: a “very essential” amino acid.
  3. Huxtable RJ. (1992). Physiol Rev. 72(1):101–63. Physiological actions of taurine.

Glycine 2,000mg

  1. Bannai M, Kawai N. (2012). J Pharmacol Sci. 118(2):145–8. New therapeutic strategy for amino acid medicine: glycine improves the quality of sleep.
  2. Kumar P, et al. (2021). Clin Transl Med. 11(3):e372. GlyNAC supplementation in older adults improves glutathione deficiency, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction.
  3. Kumar P, et al. (2023). J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 78(1):75–89. Supplementing Glycine and N-Acetylcysteine (GlyNAC) in older adults improves glutathione deficiency, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, physical function, and aging hallmarks.

Cognitive Function & Stress Response

Bacopa Monnieri 300mg

  1. Kongkeaw C, et al. (2014). J Ethnopharmacol. 151(1):528–35. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on cognitive effects of Bacopa monnieri extract.
  2. Stough C, et al. (2001). Psychopharmacology. 156(4):481–4. The chronic effects of an extract of Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi) on cognitive function in healthy human subjects.

Rhodiola Rosea 200mg

  1. Olsson EM, et al. (2009). Planta Med. 75(2):105–12. A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study of the standardised extract SHR-5 of the roots of Rhodiola rosea in the treatment of subjects with stress-related fatigue.
  2. Shevtsov VA, et al. (2003). Phytomedicine. 10(2–3):95–105. A randomized trial of two different doses of a SHR-5 Rhodiola rosea extract versus placebo and control of capacity for mental work.
  3. Ishaque S, et al. (2012). BMC Complement Altern Med. 12:70. Rhodiola rosea for physical and mental fatigue: a systematic review.
  4. Anghelescu IG, et al. (2018). Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract. 22(4):242–52. Stress management and the role of Rhodiola rosea: a review.

L-Theanine 200mg

  1. Nobre AC, et al. (2008). Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 17 Suppl 1:167–8. L-theanine, a natural constituent in tea, and its effect on mental state.
  2. Owen GN, et al. (2008). Nutr Neurosci. 11(4):193–8. The combined effects of L-theanine and caffeine on cognitive performance and mood.
  3. Hidese S, et al. (2019). Nutrients. 11(10):2362. Effects of L-theanine administration on stress-related symptoms and cognitive functions in healthy adults: a randomized controlled trial.

Matcha Green Tea 600mg

  1. Dietz C, et al. (2017). Nutrients. 9(1):49. Effect of green tea phytochemicals on mood and cognition.
  2. Türközü D, Sanlier N. (2017). Nutr Neurosci. 20(5):283–93. L-theanine, unique amino acid of tea, and its metabolism, health effects, and safety.

Choline Bitartrate 500mg

  1. Zeisel SH, da Costa KA. (2009). Nutr Rev. 67(11):615–23. Choline: an essential nutrient for public health.
  2. Wallace TC, et al. (2018). J Am Coll Nutr. 37(1):1–13. Choline: the underconsumed and underappreciated essential nutrient.

Algal DHA 400mg

  1. Stonehouse W. (2014). Nutrients. 6(7):2730–58. Does consumption of LC omega-3 PUFA enhance cognitive performance in healthy school-aged children and throughout adulthood? Evidence from clinical trials.
  2. Yurko-Mauro K, et al. (2010). Alzheimers Dement. 6(6):456–64. Beneficial effects of docosahexaenoic acid on cognition in age-related cognitive decline.

Pine Bark Extract (Pycnogenol) 75mg

  1. Ryan J, et al. (2008). J Psychopharmacol. 22(5):553–62. An examination of the effects of the antioxidant Pycnogenol on cognitive performance, serum lipid profile, endocrinological and oxidative stress biomarkers in an elderly population.
  2. Trebatická J, et al. (2006). Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 15(6):329–35. Treatment of ADHD with French maritime pine bark extract, Pycnogenol.

Antioxidant & Cellular Defence

Ubiquinol (CoQ10) 100mg

  1. Langsjoen PH, Langsjoen AM. (2014). Clin Pharmacol Drug Dev. 3(1):13–7. Comparison study of plasma coenzyme Q10 levels in healthy subjects supplemented with ubiquinol versus ubiquinone.
  2. Zozina VI, et al. (2018). Curr Cardiol Rev. 14(3):164–74. Coenzyme Q10 in cardiovascular and metabolic diseases: current state of the problem.
  3. Mantle D, Dybring A. (2020). Antioxidants (Basel). 9(5):386. Bioavailability of Coenzyme Q10: an overview of the absorption process and subsequent metabolism.
  4. Ernster L, Dallner G. (1995). Biochim Biophys Acta. 1271(1):195–204. Biochemical, physiological and medical aspects of ubiquinone function.

N-Acetyl Cysteine (NAC) 600mg

  1. Šalamon Š, et al. (2019). Antioxidants (Basel). 8(5):111. Medical and dietary uses of N-Acetylcysteine.
  2. Aldini G, et al. (2018). Free Radic Res. 52(7):751–62. N-Acetylcysteine as an antioxidant and disulphide breaking agent: the reasons why.
  3. Tenório MCDS, et al. (2021). Antioxidants (Basel). 10(6):967. N-Acetylcysteine (NAC): impacts on human health.
  4. Aquilano K, et al. (2014). Front Pharmacol. 5:196. Glutathione: new roles in redox signaling for an old antioxidant.

Alpha Lipoic Acid 300mg

  1. Packer L, et al. (1995). Free Radic Biol Med. 19(2):227–50. Alpha-lipoic acid as a biological antioxidant.
  2. Ziegler D, et al. (2004). Diabetes Care. 27(11):2654–63. Treatment of symptomatic diabetic peripheral neuropathy with the anti-oxidant alpha-lipoic acid.
  3. Shay KP, et al. (2009). Biochim Biophys Acta. 1790(10):1149–60. Alpha-lipoic acid as a dietary supplement: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential.

Vitamin C 500mg

  1. Carr AC, Maggini S. (2017). Nutrients. 9(11):1211. Vitamin C and immune function.
  2. Padayatty SJ, et al. (2004). Ann Intern Med. 140(7):533–7. Vitamin C pharmacokinetics: implications for oral and intravenous use.
  3. Michels AJ, Frei B. (2012). Nutrients. 4(11):1649–80. Myths, artifacts and fatal flaws: identifying limitations and opportunities in vitamin C research.

Grape Seed Extract 100mg

  1. Feringa HH, et al. (2011). J Am Diet Assoc. 111(8):1173–81. The effect of grape seed extract on cardiovascular risk markers: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.
  2. Weseler AR, Bast A. (2010). Genes Nutr. 5(4):273–82. Oxidative stress and vascular function: implications for pharmacologic treatments.

Vitamin E (Mixed Tocopherols) 67mg

  1. Jiang Q. (2014). Free Radic Biol Med. 72:76–90. Natural forms of vitamin E: metabolism, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities and the role in disease prevention and therapy.
  2. Peh HY, et al. (2016). Life Sci. 145:1–12. Vitamin E therapy beyond cancer: tocopherol versus tocotrienol.

Mixed Carotenoids 10mg

  1. Stahl W, Sies H. (2012). Mol Nutr Food Res. 56(2):287–95. Photoprotection by dietary carotenoids: concept, mechanisms, evidence and future development.
  2. Ma L, et al. (2012). Br J Nutr. 107(3):350–9. Lutein and zeaxanthin intake and the risk of age-related macular degeneration: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Selenium 55µg

  1. Rayman MP. (2012). Lancet. 379(9822):1256–68. Selenium and human health.
  2. Fairweather-Tait SJ, et al. (2011). Antioxid Redox Signal. 14(7):1337–83. Selenium in human health and disease.
  3. Hawkes WC, et al. (2008). Biol Trace Elem Res. 122(3):188–201. Selenium supplementation does not affect testicular selenium status or semen quality in North American men.

Cardiovascular & Metabolic Health

Aged Garlic Extract 600mg

  1. Ried K. (2016). J Nutr. 146(2):389S–396S. Garlic lowers blood pressure in hypertensive individuals, regulates serum cholesterol, and stimulates immunity: an updated meta-analysis and review.
  2. Ried K. (2020). Exp Ther Med. 19(2):1472–81. Garlic lowers blood pressure in hypertensive subjects, improves arterial stiffness and gut microbiota: a review and meta-analysis.
  3. Ashraf R, et al. (2013). Pak J Pharm Sci. 26(5):859–63. Effects of Allium sativum (garlic) on systolic and diastolic blood pressure in patients with essential hypertension.

Olive Leaf Extract 250mg

  1. Susalit E, et al. (2011). Phytomedicine. 18(4):251–8. Olive (Olea europaea) leaf extract effective in patients with stage-1 hypertension: comparison with captopril.
  2. Lockyer S, et al. (2017). Eur J Nutr. 56(3):1169–85. Secoiridoids delivered as olive leaf extract induce acute improvements in human vascular function and reduction of an in vitro LDL oxidation.

Vitamin K2 MK-7 200µg

  1. Geleijnse JM, et al. (2004). J Nutr. 134(11):3100–5. Dietary intake of menaquinone is associated with a reduced risk of coronary heart disease: the Rotterdam Study.
  2. Vermeer C. (2012). Food Nutr Res. 56:5329. Vitamin K: the effect on health beyond coagulation — an overview.
  3. Knapen MH, et al. (2013). Osteoporos Int. 24(9):2499–507. Three-year low-dose menaquinone-7 supplementation helps decrease bone loss in healthy postmenopausal women.

Potassium Chloride 400mg

  1. Aburto NJ, et al. (2013). BMJ. 346:f1378. Effect of increased potassium intake on cardiovascular risk factors and disease: systematic review and meta-analyses.
  2. He FJ, MacGregor GA. (2008). J Hum Hypertens. 22(5):352–7. Beneficial effects of potassium on human health.

Chromium Picolinate 200µg

  1. Anderson RA. (1998). J Am Coll Nutr. 17(6):548–55. Chromium, glucose intolerance and diabetes.
  2. Cefalu WT, Hu FB. (2004). Diabetes Care. 27(11):2741–51. Role of chromium in human health and in diabetes.

Gut Health & Microbiome

Bacillus coagulans GBI-30, 6086 2 billion CFU

  1. Dolin BJ. (2009). Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol. 31(10):655–9. Effects of a proprietary Bacillus coagulans preparation on symptoms of diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome.
  2. Dolin BJ. (2009). Postgrad Med. 121(2):119–24. Bacillus coagulans significantly improved abdominal pain and bloating in patients with IBS.
  3. Baron M. (2009). Postgrad Med. 121(2):114–8. A patented strain of Bacillus coagulans increased immune response to viral challenge.
  4. Jäger R, et al. (2016). PeerJ. 4:e2276. Probiotic Bacillus coagulans GBI-30, 6086 reduces exercise-induced muscle damage and increases recovery.

Tributyrin 300mg

  1. Canani RB, et al. (2011). World J Gastroenterol. 17(12):1519–28. Potential beneficial effects of butyrate in intestinal and extraintestinal diseases.
  2. Louis P, et al. (2014). Nat Rev Microbiol. 12(10):661–72. The gut microbiota, bacterial metabolites and colorectal cancer.

Ginger Root Extract 500mg

  1. Black CD, et al. (2010). J Pain. 11(9):894–903. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) reduces muscle pain caused by eccentric exercise.
  2. Daily JW, et al. (2015). J Acad Nutr Diet. 115(7):1155–66. Efficacy of ginger for alleviating the symptoms of primary dysmenorrhea: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials.
  3. Mao QQ, et al. (2019). Foods. 8(6):185. Bioactive compounds and bioactivities of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe).

MCT Powder 3,000mg

  1. St-Onge MP, Jones PJ. (2002). J Nutr. 132(3):329–32. Physiological effects of medium-chain triglycerides: potential agents in the prevention of obesity.
  2. Augustin K, et al. (2018). Lancet Neurol. 17(1):84–93. Mechanisms of action for the medium-chain triglyceride ketogenic diet in neurological and metabolic disorders.

B-Complex & Essential Vitamins

Vitamin D3 (algae-derived) 2,000IU

  1. Holick MF. (2007). N Engl J Med. 357(3):266–81. Vitamin D deficiency.
  2. Tripkovic L, et al. (2012). Am J Clin Nutr. 95(6):1357–64. Comparison of vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 supplementation in raising serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
  3. Pludowski P, et al. (2013). Autoimmun Rev. 12(10):976–89. Vitamin D effects on musculoskeletal health, immunity, autoimmunity, cardiovascular disease, cancer, fertility, pregnancy, dementia and mortality — a review of recent evidence.

Methylcobalamin (B12) 500µg

  1. Watanabe F. (2007). Exp Biol Med. 232(10):1266–74. Vitamin B12 sources and bioavailability.
  2. Vogiatzoglou A, et al. (2008). Neurology. 71(11):826–32. Vitamin B12 status and rate of brain volume loss in community-dwelling elderly.
  3. Clarke R, et al. (2008). J Intern Med. 264(5):404–19. Folate and vitamin B12: friendly or enemy nutrients for the elderly.

5-MTHF Folate (Quatrefolic®) 400µg DFE

  1. Scaglione F, Panzavolta G. (2014). Xenobiotica. 44(5):480–8. Folate, folic acid and 5-methyltetrahydrofolate are not the same thing.
  2. Prinz-Langenohl R, et al. (2009). Br J Pharmacol. 158(8):2014–21. [6S]-5-methyltetrahydrofolate increases plasma folate more effectively than folic acid in women with the homozygous or wild-type 677CT polymorphism of methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase.
  3. Greenberg JA, et al. (2011). Rev Obstet Gynecol. 4(2):52–9. Folic acid supplementation and pregnancy: more than just neural tube defect prevention.

Niacinamide (B3) 20mg NE

  1. Mehmel M, et al. (2020). Nutrients. 12(6):1616. Nicotinamide riboside — the current state of research and therapeutic uses.
  2. Massudi H, et al. (2012). PLoS One. 7(7):e42357. Age-associated changes in oxidative stress and NAD+ metabolism in human tissue.
  3. Jacobson EL, et al. (1999). Biofactors. 9(2–4):359–71. Biochemistry and physiology of niacin.

Pantothenic Acid (B5) 6mg

  1. Tahiliani AG, Beinlich CJ. (1991). Vitam Horm. 46:165–228. Pantothenic acid in health and disease.
  2. Tahiliani AG, Beinlich CJ. (1991). Vitam Horm. 46:165–228. Pantothenic acid in health and disease (Part II).

P-5-P (B6) 2mg

  1. Rall LC, Meydani SN. (1993). Nutr Rev. 51(8):217–25. Vitamin B6 and immune competence.
  2. Stover PJ, Field MS. (2015). Adv Nutr. 6(1):132–3. Vitamin B-6.

Riboflavin (B2) 1.4mg

  1. Powers HJ. (2003). Am J Clin Nutr. 77(6):1352–60. Riboflavin (vitamin B-2) and health.
  2. Thompson DF, Saluja HS. (2017). Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 73(10):1275–83. Prophylaxis of migraine headaches with riboflavin: a systematic review.

Thiamine (B1) 1.1mg

  1. Sambon M, et al. (2021). Int J Mol Sci. 22(11):5418. Neuroprotective effects of thiamine and precursors with higher bioavailability: focus on benfotiamine and dibenzoylthiamine.
  2. Lonsdale D. (2006). Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 3(1):49–59. A review of the biochemistry, metabolism and clinical benefits of thiamin(e) and its derivatives.

Biotin (B7) 50µg

  1. Zempleni J, et al. (2009). Biofactors. 35(1):36–46. Biotin.
  2. Patel DP, et al. (2017). Skin Appendage Disord. 3(3):166–9. A review of the use of biotin for hair loss.

Minerals, Electrolytes & Trace Elements

Magnesium Bisglycinate 200mg elemental

  1. Schuchardt JP, Hahn A. (2017). Curr Nutr Food Sci. 13(4):260–78. Intestinal absorption and factors influencing bioavailability of magnesium — an update.
  2. de Baaij JH, et al. (2015). Physiol Rev. 95(1):1–46. Magnesium in man: implications for health and disease.
  3. Nielsen FH, Johnson LK, Zeng H. (2010). Magnes Res. 23(4):158–68. Magnesium supplementation improves indicators of low magnesium status and inflammatory stress in adults older than 51 years with poor quality sleep.
  4. Abbasi B, et al. (2012). J Res Med Sci. 17(12):1161–9. The effect of magnesium supplementation on primary insomnia in elderly: a double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial.

Zinc Bisglycinate 15mg elemental

  1. Haase H, Rink L. (2014). BioFactors. 40(1):27–40. Zinc signals and immune function.
  2. Wessels I, et al. (2017). Nutrients. 9(12):1286. Zinc as a gatekeeper of immune function.
  3. Lönnerdal B. (2000). J Nutr. 130(5S Suppl):1378S–83S. Dietary factors influencing zinc absorption.

Iodine 150µg

  1. Zimmermann MB. (2009). Endocr Rev. 30(4):376–408. Iodine deficiency.
  2. Pearce EN, et al. (2016). Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 4(2):174–88. Iodine deficiency in industrialised countries.

Copper Bisglycinate 1mg elemental

  1. Turnlund JR. (1998). Am J Clin Nutr. 67(5 Suppl):960S–4S. Human whole-body copper metabolism.
  2. Harvey LJ, et al. (2005). Br J Nutr. 94(5):688–94. Divalent metal transporter 1 and human bioavailability of copper forms.

Manganese Bisglycinate 2mg elemental

  1. Nyarko-Danquah I, et al. (2020). Molecules. 25(24):5907. Manganese accumulation in the brain via various transporters and its neurotoxicity mechanisms.
  2. Aschner JL, Aschner M. (2005). Mol Aspects Med. 26(4–5):353–62. Nutritional aspects of manganese homeostasis.

Sodium Molybdate 50µg

  1. Oskarsson A, Kippler M. (2023). Food Nutr Res. 67. Molybdenum — a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023.
  2. Schwarz G, et al. (2009). Cell Mol Life Sci. 66(15):2523–40. Molybdenum cofactor biosynthesis and deficiency.

Himalayan Pink Salt 500mg

  1. Shirreffs SM, Sawka MN. (2011). J Sports Sci. 29 Suppl 1:S39–46. Fluid and electrolyte needs for training, competition, and recovery.
  2. Shirreffs SM, Maughan RJ. (1998). Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 76(4):311–9. Sodium intake and post-exercise rehydration in man.

Botanical Extracts & Whole Foods

Moringa Leaf Powder 1,000mg

  1. Mbikay M. (2012). Front Pharmacol. 3:24. Therapeutic potential of Moringa oleifera leaves in chronic hyperglycemia and dyslipidemia: a review.
  2. Alegbejo JO. (2013). J Med Food. 16(10):934–40. Nutritive value and utilization of Moringa oleifera Lam (drumstick) — a review.

Yuzu Extract 200mg

  1. Yoo KM, et al. (2004). J Agric Food Chem. 52(19):5907–13. Variation in major antioxidants and total antioxidant activity of Yuzu (Citrus junos Sieb ex Tanaka) during maturation and between cultivars.
  2. Shin S, et al. (2016). Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2016:4691429. Anxiolytic effects of repeated yuzu (Citrus junos Tanaka) fragrance administration in a stress-loaded mouse model.

Xylitol

  1. Mäkinen KK. (2011). Med Princ Pract. 20(4):303–20. Sugar alcohol sweeteners as alternatives to sugar with special consideration of xylitol.
  2. Nayak PA, et al. (2014). J Nat Sci Biol Med. 5(2):307–11. The effect of xylitol on dental caries and oral flora.

119 citations. 50 ingredients. All sources from PubMed (National Library of Medicine). The complete formula with every ingredient, form, and dose is on The Formula. If you have a question about the evidence behind a specific ingredient, email us.

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